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China's Earliest Modern Human Found

The remains of one of the earliest modern humans to inhabit eastern Asia have been unearthed in China. The find could shed light on how our ancestors colonized the East. Researchers found 34 bone fragments belonging to a single individual at the Tianyuan Cave, near Beijing.

163 comments

  1. More evidence... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 4, Funny

    fabricated by the Flying Spaghetti Monster. Such gullible people.

    1. Re:More evidence... by FyRE666 · · Score: 2, Funny

      I dispute this nonsense, since as we all know, the Earth is only a few thousand years old, not the 42,000 years old that this skellington is supposed to be!

    2. Re:More evidence... by BlueTrin · · Score: 1

      I noticed that there is a correlation between the number of Negationists, the Tomatotarians, and Global Warming.

      --
      Don't you know it is now both immoral and criminal to think beyond the next quarterly report?
    3. Re:More evidence... by webdoodle · · Score: 4, Funny

      This isn't the article I submitted to Slashdot. You editors are complete assholes, its a wonder people use your site at all. Thanks you hypocrites for sending people to a worthless BBC article, and not my site.

    4. Re:More evidence... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 1, Insightful

      Click-throughs not working out for you, hmm?

      What makes you so sure you were the only submitter? And if it wasn't the article you submitted, what the hell are you complaining about?

    5. Re:More evidence... by mapkinase · · Score: 0, Offtopic

      Troll and flamebait. I always get moderator points when /. editors in the mood for games, iPods and RIAA wars and never on those subjects. It is a test.

      --
      I do not believe in karma. "Funny"=-6. Do good and forbid evil. Yours, Oft-Offtopic Flamebaiting Troll.
    6. Re:More evidence... by erasmix · · Score: 1

      Everybody knows that we did not evolved on earth, but were created by the almighty. Those remains must be from the pre-columbus era :-p

    7. Re:More evidence... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      ...and 70 million year old dinosaurs still have soft tissue in their bones!!!

      http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/03 24_050324_trexsofttissue.html

  2. Who are you talking about? by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 2, Insightful

    The find could shed light on how our ancestors colonized the East.

    What do you mean "our", pilgrim? My ancestors didn't colonize the East.

    1. Re:Who are you talking about? by Yst · · Score: 4, Interesting
      --
      Karma: Chameleon (comes and goes)
    2. Re:Who are you talking about? by Frozen+Void · · Score: 2, Insightful

      Your ancestors are ancestors for everyone if you look deep enough.
      see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_Recent_Common_An cestor#MRCA_of_all_living_humans

    3. Re:Who are you talking about? by pizzach · · Score: 1

      The find could shed light on how our ancestors colonized the East. No! If you do that, they'll disintegrate!
      --
      Once you start despising the jerks, you become one.
    4. Re:Who are you talking about? by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Yes, but they still didn't colonize the east.
      Some descendants of those common ancestors colonized the east.

  3. Other things interest me besides... by CrackedButter · · Score: 4, Interesting

    I'd be more interested as to how people in the region developed different facial features, such as smaller eyes and differing skin tones. If we all have supposedly come out of Africa as the Article suggests, what is the reason for our physical differences? Even as a child, our differences amazed me, now that I'm older and the current theory is that we all came from Africa, I'm left asking myself again, how did we get them?

    1. Re:Other things interest me besides... by CmdrGravy · · Score: 2, Interesting

      What puzzles me is that the article goes on about "archaic" groups of humans who the humans coming from out of Africa met up with and made love to without ever explaining who or what these archaic groups were and how they had got where they were.

    2. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Somewhat+Delirious · · Score: 3, Informative

      Evolutionary adaptions to different environments combined with random mutations in isolated communities perhaps?

      --
      The surest sign that intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is that none of it has tried to contact us.
    3. Re:Other things interest me besides... by grahamlee · · Score: 5, Informative

      AIUI (I'm not an evolutionary biologist, although my girlfriend is) the environmental pressures which gave rise to homo sapiens in Africa also occurred among simian populations elsewhere, so that human-like characteristics arose independently among multiple populations (h. neanderthalis in Europe, for example). Through interbreeding and competition, there's now a single species, h. sapiens sapiens. Although some of the characteristics of our species are apparently or allegedly tracable to interbreeding events, for instance I've heard that red/ginger hair among Europeans can be linked to Neanderthalis genes.

    4. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      I've heard that red/ginger hair among Europeans can be linked to Neanderthalis genes. I knew it!
    5. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Scarletdown · · Score: 4, Funny
      I thought this Human origins question was answered back in the late 70s...

      There are those who believe that life here began out there, far across the universe. With tribes of Humans, who may have been the forefathers of the Egyptians, or the Toltecs, or the Mayans. That they may have been the architects of the great pyramids, or the lost civilizations of Lemuria or Atlantis. Some believe that there may yet be brothers of Man, who even now fight to survive...somewhere beyond the heavens.


      (Cue one of the most kick-ass scifi theme songs ever composed...)

      --
      This space unintentionally left blank.
    6. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Naviztirf · · Score: 1
      My thoughts as well.
      "The question is where did they get them from? Either they re-evolved them, which is not very likely, or, to some degree, they interbred with archaic groups."


      Since the traits in question were essentially throwbacks, why should it be all that surprising that they would turn up occasionally? Remember too that this the only skeleton we have from that time and place, and not even complete one at that.

      And who are these archaic groups? And how do I join one?


      ----

      "After the ship has sunk, everyone knows how it might have been saved." - Italian Proverb

    7. Re:Other things interest me besides... by dajak · · Score: 4, Interesting

      The archaic groups of humans they are speaking of are obviously the previous wave of humans coming out of Africa. Coming "out of Africa" does not by the way suggest a relation with the Niger-Congo ("black") peoples who currently dominate that continent: the Bantu expansion is of much more recent date. The Wikipedia Khoisan article maybe sheds some light on where the brown and yellow skin and epicanthic eye folds typical of most Eurasian populations may come from. The Papua and Australian Aboriginals are for instance also interesting leftovers of previous peoples coming "out of Africa".

    8. Re:Other things interest me besides... by MichaelSmith · · Score: 3, Interesting

      The Papua and Australian Aboriginals are for instance also interesting leftovers of previous peoples coming "out of Africa".

      I read somewhere that even now human African populations have much more diversity than humans outside Africa. Perhaps the different racial characteristics represent groups who left Africa at various times because they were less suited to the environment there.

    9. Re:Other things interest me besides... by dajak · · Score: 4, Interesting

      Indeed. Nearly all diversity in appearance of human beings outside of Africa is also found in Africa, even today. But there seems to be a bit of a misunderstanding about what this means, because many people seem to be under the impression that a) Africa is inhabited by black people of the Niger-Congo type, and b) that these people and their ancestors where always all over that continent and all people less black than them are somehow less "African".

      In reality the expansion of the Niger-Congo people from a fairly small area in western Africa is a very recent phenomenon, and a large part of Africa was, and in the north still is, inhabited by people with lighter skins and a variety of physical features. The African sun does not select specifically for being of the Niger-Congo type: the expansion has to do with agricultural and military advantages these people had over their competitors. Compare tropical regions in Asia and South America before the Spanish arrived: no blacks there. There is however a limit on how light-skinned a baby can be in the African sun and still survive, so some mutations will only happen once a group has left Africa.

    10. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Hey modz, this "large front teeth" thing was directly from the article. I was mocking the article for the racist troll-spew that it is. If that makes me a troll as well, so be it.

    11. Re:Other things interest me besides... by edwardpickman · · Score: 2, Funny

      The red headed Neaderthal theory has been around for a while but there's still no evidence genetic or physical. That said my exwife was a redhead so I personally am a true believer.

    12. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      "And who are these archaic groups?"

      Right here

    13. Re:Other things interest me besides... by CmdrGravy · · Score: 1

      I understand they still practice traditional techniques of medicene. Keef, who I presume must be the tribes witchdoctor has recently explained how snorting up his fathers ashes with a good dose of coke smooths the coke nicely and gives you a good hit.

    14. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Rob+T+Firefly · · Score: 1

      I'm not an evolutionary biologist, although my girlfriend is
      Wow, talk about bragging rights. Here's to you, buddy!
    15. Re:Other things interest me besides... by ProfessionalCookie · · Score: 1

      And I've heard that blue hair comes from interbreeding with blueberries.

    16. Re:Other things interest me besides... by torndorff · · Score: 1

      The currently theories are that the Neandertal genes did not persist in H. sapien sapien. They died out, and there wasn't any interbreeding (at least none that had significant historic effect).

    17. Re:Other things interest me besides... by radtea · · Score: 4, Informative

      the article goes on about "archaic" groups of humans who the humans coming from out of Africa met up with and made love to without ever explaining who or what these archaic groups were and how they had got where they were.

      Evidence suggests that early hominids migrated out of Africa in waves. Homo erectus, for example, is believed to have evolved in Africa and spread over much of Asia one or two million years ago. The general pattern of hominid evolution is one of evolution of new species in Africa followed by general dispersion over those parts of the globe accessible by foot. This pattern appears to have been repeated several times: H. erectus, H. heidelbergensis/neanderthalensis[1] and H. sapiens.

      The reality of hominid evolution is that we don't know a lot. The number of fossils is small and the weight of inference they bear is heavy. As Mark Twain said, in science one gets such a huge return in speculation from such a trifling investment of fact. However, the DNA evidence points quite strongly to the evolution of modern humans in Africa about two hundred thousand years ago, and the migration across the rest of the Old World about 70,000 years ago, with the settling of Australia by perfectly ordinary H. sapiens who are just like all the rest of us about 40,000 years ago. North America was colonized somewhat later, but probably not that much.

      Humans are much bigger on exogamy than any other primate: we have a strong tendency to breed outside our kin group. We'll have sex with just about anything, and actually show a marked preference for those who are not perceived to be close kin. This is why the differences between races are so tiny, and restricted entirely to rapidly evolved and quite trivial enzymic variations that have high survival value in different climates. We are all multi-racial under the skin, and all have ancestors of different races far more recently in our family tree than most people appreciate (Icelanders may be exempt from this rule.)

      So on the face of it, if there were multiple waves of near-modern humans migrating across the Old World, it is very likely that the members of the most recent group would have interbred with previous groups.

      [1] For the racists in the audience, it might be worth contemplating that Neanderthals are the only hominid species that appears to have evolved in Europe (from H. heidelbergensis that left Africa earlier) and of all the hominids they are amongst the least successful.

      --
      Blasphemy is a human right. Blasphemophobia kills.
    18. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Empiric · · Score: 1

      This model, though, may require revisitation as IBM is currently crunching the genetic numbers and indicating a single common ancestor for all of present-day humanity living tens of thousands, rather than millions, of years ago.

      It's an interesting project. More information on ibm.com as well.

      --
      ~ Whence do you come, slayer of men, or where are you going, conqueror of space?
    19. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      How is the phrase "large front teeth" racist?

    20. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Chemicalscum · · Score: 2, Informative

      "AIUI (I'm not an evolutionary biologist, although my girlfriend is)... Although some of the characteristics of our species are apparently or allegedly tracable to interbreeding events, for instance I've heard that red/ginger hair among Europeans can be linked to Neanderthalis genes."

      You are certainly not an evolutionary biologist and if your girlfriend is you certainly haven't been listening to here unless she is a student of that neanderthal Wolpert.. You don't live in Ann Arbour by any chance?

      Most paleoanthopologist think that modern humans are descended from a small population in Africa that spread out and colonized the entire world displacing earlier archaic types of homo such as erectus and neanderthalensis with whom they could not interbreed. There is good genetic evidence based on the sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from the bones of neanderthal specimens to show that we are not the product of interbreeding with neanderthals.

      The differences in appearance are a result of selective evolutionary pressures working on populations of modern humans. For example the pale pinko-grey skin of northern europeans like myself is due the lack of sunlight in these northern climes. Vitamin D is produced through the action of sunlight on cells just below our skins. Having a dark skin in Africa and othour tropical regions protects against damage from strong sunlight and the occurence of skin cancer, while enough sunlight penetrates to produce vit D.
      However the first dark skinned modern humans to penetrate into the gloomy north would tend towards vit D deficiency and there would be a selective pressure towards lighter skinned individuals, able to produce enough vit d, surviving to reproduce. Nothing todo with inbreeding with archaics, simple eh?

    21. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      so that explains the red-haired step child thing.

    22. Re:Other things interest me besides... by CmdrGravy · · Score: 1

      Whats so special about Africa ? Why is everything evolving here first as opposed to anywhere else in the world ?

    23. Re:Other things interest me besides... by grahamlee · · Score: 1

      listening to here[sic] unless she is a student of that neanderthal Wolpert

      In my understanding, the neanderthals are extinct.

    24. Re:Other things interest me besides... by grahamlee · · Score: 2, Insightful

      If she's called Eve then I'll pick up Richard Dawkins' coat along with mine on the way out ;-). Mind you, you can kindof work out that it wouldn't require too much history for you and I, or you and CmdrTaco, or you and anyone else in the world to find a common ancestor. If you go back 33 generations then without any inbreeding you would have 8 billion ancestors, which is more than even the current population. That's only 8-900 years, OK the population isn't as uniform as the above calculation assumes but if you even had to go back 15k years for yourself and an arbitrary other human to find a common ancestor, I'd be surprised.

    25. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Profane+MuthaFucka · · Score: 1

      That's like asking what's special about Seattle, that they made all the big airplanes first. The answer is that Boeing had to be located *somewhere* and it happened to be Seattle.

      Likewise, if humans were to exist they had to evolve somewhere, and why not Africa. If we all came from South America, we might be asking ourselves "why South America?"

      Why NOT.

      --
      Fascism trolls keeping me up every night. When I starts a preachin', he HITS ME WITH HIS REICH!
    26. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Empiric · · Score: 1

      If she's called Eve then I'll pick up Richard Dawkins' coat along with mine on the way out ;-)

      That's fine, but, of course, neither of you have anywhere to go. ;)

      --
      ~ Whence do you come, slayer of men, or where are you going, conqueror of space?
    27. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Because Jap's of got them?

    28. Re:Other things interest me besides... by eck011219 · · Score: 1

      My understanding is that it's simple Darwinian law -- for example, those who moved to colder regions and didn't have noses close to the warmth of their head and heavy epicanthic folds tended to get cold and die. So over hundreds of generations, minor physical differences became magnified as the people of a region lived or died based on the practical characteristics of those differences. And I'd imagine that taste began to play a part in it, as well -- certain cultures valued certain features (a chiseled jaw or big boobs or whatever [no, not on the same person]) and therefore those people were more likely to have the opportunity to breed.

      But I'm just a web developer who's read a couple of books about this stuff, so don't take my word for it. That was my understanding, anyway.

      --
      It is pitch black. You are likely to be eaten by a grue.
    29. Re:Other things interest me besides... by smellsofbikes · · Score: 1

      You're correct about diversity. Malcolm Gladwell wrote a New Yorker article about racial diversity, or more specifically, about why so many athletes in some sports are of African descent. A geneticist studying this is quoted: "I would say, without a doubt, that in almost any single African population-a tribe or however you want to define it-there is more genetic variation than in all the rest of the world put together..." The conclusion is that since there's more diversity, there are more people at the high -- and low -- extremes of fitness in African-derived populations.
      It's an interesting article. In some other stuff I've read, that I can't find, they talk about how expectations form success (he talks a little about this) and give an example of how in the early 1900's the majority of basketball players were small Jews, because at the time it was believed that they had faster reflexes so could outmaneuver larger/slower players. The more racism changes, the more it stays the same...

      --
      Nostalgia's not what it used to be.
    30. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Damn it! Now I have to quit the racist club - I thought we could only make fun of oriental's slanty eyes and yellow skin. I completely missed the big front teeth thing.

    31. Re:Other things interest me besides... by Picard_1701 · · Score: 1

      The crap that gets modded insightful around here... I'm not saying you're an idiot.... but, OK, I am saying it. You are an idiot.

      Here's a reading comprehension test:

      Africa's climate is different from Asia's climate is different from Europe's climate. They all have differing amounts of sunlight and rainfall and vegetation and animals, which lead, over time, to different evolutionary adaptations to maximize the organism's efficiency of living in THAT particular place.

      Africans with dark skin (IN GENERAL) need more sunlight to manufacture Vitamin D than northern Europeans with light skin because... they usually got more based on where they live. That isn't why they have dark skin, but it is a consequence of having it.
      http://www.psoriasiscafe.org/vitamin-d.htm

      Sickle cell anemia (also very prevalent in Africans) is an evolutionary adaptation to minimize the risks for the populace associated with malaria.
      http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/malaria_sickle.html

      There are probably very similar changes that have happened in Northern Europeans and Asians in general to adapt to their particular environments, but I am unaware of them. I would be interested in knowing them, so please respond.

      I know this is bitchy, but Jesus. You do NOT understand evolution.

      Evolution happens. It happens on such a massive timescale that we cannot actually observe evolution in humans itself, but we can observe it in other species and infer from them what has happened to us. Even very minor differences over hundreds of thousands of years can result in observable changes in minor things like skin and hair colour.

      I do not want to be construed as racist. I am definitely not. It is true that in general, individual humans have far more similarities than differences, but populaces separated by geography CAN have vast biological differences that affect them, and those differences that we see are just indicators of the ones we cannot.

      It doesn't mean a thing at all in your day to day life, but it is real, and it is not magic.

      --
      I think if you know what you believe, it makes it a lot easier to answer questions. I can't answer your question.
    32. Re:Other things interest me besides... by dasunt · · Score: 1

      However the first dark skinned modern humans to penetrate into the gloomy north would tend towards vit D deficiency and there would be a selective pressure towards lighter skinned individuals, able to produce enough vit d, surviving to reproduce. Nothing todo with inbreeding with archaics, simple eh?

      So why do Tasmanians have darker skins than northern Europeans, even though much of northern Europe was still under glaciers when the Tasmanians settled in Tasmania?

      While darker skin pigment may be beneficial in sunnier regions, from what I know of vitamin D generation, the case for lighter skin in darker regions isn't that strong, and I'm more prone to believe those who consider skin color to be strongly influenced by a founder effect or by sexual selection.

      PS: How sunny is it in the rainforest? Just because a region is equatoral doesn't make it as sunny.

  4. Wow.... by jovius · · Score: 1

    i bet he/she never thought ending up on slashdot.

  5. Quickly now, don't run! by cybereal · · Score: 2, Funny

    And he was lying there in the dirt only slightly longer than it took Slashdot to catch on to this news.

    --
    I read the script, and I think it would help my character's motivation if he was on fire. -Bender
  6. Modern? by FredDC · · Score: 4, Funny

    Researchers found 34 bone fragments belonging to a single individual at the Tianyuan Cave, near Beijing.

    If he's living in a cave, he can't be very "modern"...

    --
    09 f9 11 02 9d 74 e3 5b d8 41 56 c5 63
    1. Re:Modern? by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Researchers found 34 bone fragments belonging to a single individual at the Tianyuan Cave, near Beijing. In this cave it was found a refrigerator, microwave,TV, internet and sauna.

      Fixed

    2. Re:Modern? by harry666t · · Score: 0

      > If he's living in a cave, he can't be very "modern"...

      Actually, some modern people

      http://www.geekcode.com/geek.html#house

      are "Living in a cave with 47 computers and an Internet feed, located near a Dominoes pizza".

    3. Re:Modern? by Frozen+Void · · Score: 1

      Relative to monkeys in the trees.

    4. Re:Modern? by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      With apologies to Gilbert and Sullivan (and most Slashdotters)

      I am the very model of a modern homo sapien,
      I've hunted vegetable, animal, and mineral,
      I know the bow and arrow, and I fight the fights historical
      From Africa to All Point East, in order categorical;
      I'm very well acquainted, too, with matters geneological,
      I understand knapping, both the flint and glass that's pyroclastical,
      About creating fire I'm teeming with a lot o' news,
      With many cheerful facts about cooking up the deer and moose.
      I'm very good at tracking and spirits mysterious and miraculous;
      I know the common names of beings animalculous:
      In short, in matters vegetable, animal, and mineral,
      I am the very model of a modern homo sapien.

    5. Re:Modern? by 140Mandak262Jamuna · · Score: 1

      You are correct. No one would accuse Osama ibn Ladin as being modern.

      --
      sed -e 's/Chuck Norris/Rajnikant/g' joke > fact
  7. Actually it is that old. by MarkByers · · Score: 3, Funny

    > I dispute this nonsense, since as we all know, the Earth is only a few thousand years old, not the 42,000 years old that this skellington is supposed to be!

    It really is that old. On the 8th day, god created a 40,000 year old skeleton and then buried it somewhere he knew we would find it. he does this to test our faith. god can do anything. Even impossible things or things that make no logical sense.

    --
    I'll probably be modded down for this...
    1. Re:Actually it is that old. by pzs · · Score: 1, Funny

      You're mistaking "God" for "Gödel".

      Peter

    2. Re:Actually it is that old. by CRCulver · · Score: 1

      Could God set a puzzle that was so difficult that even God couldn't solve it?

      Richard Swinburne, the foremost living philosopher of religion, gives an interesting presentation of this problem for laymen in his book Is There a God? (Oxford University Press, 1996). His conclusion is that God is bound by logic. For example, he cannot cause something to exist and not exist at the same time. This idea, that logic in a sense precedes God, is controversial, and debate on this is one of the most lively issues in philosophy of religion at the moment.

    3. Re:Actually it is that old. by vivaoporto · · Score: 0, Offtopic

      A ~A should read A <==>~A

    4. Re:Actually it is that old. by Opportunist · · Score: 1

      If God creates such things, he might be omnipotent but very stupid.

      Imagine you're God. And of course, you want people to believe in you 'cause ... well, you're God, that's your job.

      Why would I create stuff to make people doubt my existance?

      --
      We used to have a Bill of Rights. Now, with the rights gone, all we have left is the bill.
    5. Re:Actually it is that old. by simm1701 · · Score: 1

      No he couldn't have done it. On the 7th day he exited from append mode and ran chmod 511 !$

      One can only wonder what would have happened if he had set it 4511 instead...

      --
      $_="Slashdotter";$syn="OTT";s;..;;;sub _{print shift||$_};s!ash!Perl !;s=$syn=ack=i;tr+LLEd+BLAH+;_"Just Another ";_
    6. Re:Actually it is that old. by aproposofwhat · · Score: 2, Insightful

      Richard Swinburne, the foremost living philosopher of religion

      No - the foremost living philosopher of religion is Richard Dawkins, and there is no logical reason for believing in a god or gods at all.

      Logic not only precedes gods, it precludes them as well.

      Philosphy of religion? Why bother? An anthropology of religion would be valid, but to try to apply logic and reason to myths is just not valid. As Wittgenstein put it -

      Of that on which we cannot speak, we must remain silent.

      --
      One swallow does not a fellatrix make
    7. Re:Actually it is that old. by BlueTrin · · Score: 1

      Because god's best gift was free will.

      ... at least that's what they say.

      --
      Don't you know it is now both immoral and criminal to think beyond the next quarterly report?
    8. Re:Actually it is that old. by oliverthered · · Score: 1

      Easy, To test our faith, because without faith God is nothing.

      --
      thank God the internet isn't a human right.
    9. Re:Actually it is that old. by oliverthered · · Score: 1, Interesting

      and there is currently no logical reason for believing in a god or gods at all.

      In the past with so many things unexplained believing in a God would probably make more sense than some of the explanations we have today.

      God has no place in a modern world.

      --
      thank God the internet isn't a human right.
    10. Re:Actually it is that old. by CRCulver · · Score: 5, Interesting

      No - the foremost living philosopher of religion is Richard Dawkins

      No, he is not a philosopher of religion. In the last twenty years, he has tried to present himself as one, but the academy, both theist or non-theist, is getting a little worried about him. Anthony Flew, instead of joining with Dawkins in any way, went the entirely opposite direction.

      There is no logical reason for believing in a god or gods at all.

      Theist philosophers of religion propose arguments, and their non-theist colleagues, though they critically examine them, nonetheless believe that the whole enterprise has value.

      To try to apply logic and reason to myths is just not valid.

      Theist philosophers don't necessarily work from any existing world religion, so "myths" don't often come into play here.

      Please get some training in the field before you try to dispute its work. K thx bye.

    11. Re:Actually it is that old. by MrMr · · Score: 1

      I don't get it. Do you mean that A ~A as the reductio ad absurdum of omnipotence cannot apply because it shows that the conclusion is absurd?

    12. Re:Actually it is that old. by Bastard+of+Subhumani · · Score: 2, Funny

      without faith God is nothing.
      Yeah, but the Babel fish is a dead giveaway, right?
      --
      Only three things are certain; death, taxes, and apocryphal quotations - Ben Franklin.
    13. Re:Actually it is that old. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Oh, I get it. So the entire christian religion is just a ploy by allah to test our faith. Thanks for the clarification.

    14. Re:Actually it is that old. by bytesex · · Score: 1

      I thought that the 'implied' operator was denoted as '<='. And A <= !A is true for A is zero. But my logic is rusty..

      --
      Religion is what happens when nature strikes and groupthink goes wrong.
    15. Re:Actually it is that old. by vivaoporto · · Score: 1

      Can God make an heptagonal triangle? Well, to spare my time trying to explain why is it a fallacy I googled an article about it. Anyway, discussing this is as pointless as discussing how can the Saci Perere cross his legs if he has only one (Brazilian folklore), or what is the sound of one hand clapping.

      Anyway, there is only one thing we can be certain: Chuck Norris can create a rock so heavy that even he can't lift it. And then he lifts it anyways, just to show you who Chuck Norris is.

    16. Re:Actually it is that old. by mapkinase · · Score: 4, Insightful

      Dawkins is an arrogant media-hungry loser of science. I have seen similar figures in my field: computational biology. It has nothing to do with religion or anything else. Some people just want to flamebait on- and off-line.

      --
      I do not believe in karma. "Funny"=-6. Do good and forbid evil. Yours, Oft-Offtopic Flamebaiting Troll.
    17. Re:Actually it is that old. by Mjlner · · Score: 2, Interesting

      No, he is not a philosopher of religion. In the last twenty years, he has tried to present himself as one, but the academy, both theist or non-theist, is getting a little worried about him.
      He has hardly tried to present himself as a "philosopher of religion". He has quite clearly presented himself as an atheist and a scientist. He does, of course, philosophize against religion. Which academy are you talking about, by the way, and of what importance is this academy to Richard Dawkins?

      Theist philosophers of religion propose arguments, and their non-theist colleagues, though they critically examine them, nonetheless believe that the whole enterprise has value.
      That statement is quite non-informative. You already said that Dawkins is not a philosopher of religion, which indicates that you automatically exclude atheists from being philosophers of religion, which I'm prepared to agree with. In other words, the only non-theists you speak of are deists. Why should a deist philosopher of religion not find value in such an enterprise?
      --
      Lemon curry???
    18. Re:Actually it is that old. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      No, he is not a philosopher of religion. True. His background is more biology, you know, something resembling a real job...
    19. Re:Actually it is that old. by Opportunist · · Score: 1

      But if he pushes the envelope too much, people might see through the bunk.

      --
      We used to have a Bill of Rights. Now, with the rights gone, all we have left is the bill.
    20. Re:Actually it is that old. by aproposofwhat · · Score: 1
      I wouldn't dream of trying to dispute anything in the field of 'philosophy of religion' - I would merely point out that the whole field is of no value whatsoever.

      Since the root of the word 'philosophy' means 'love of knowledge', what value does the knowledge of something non-existent have?

      You might as well have a 'philosophy of unicorns' for all it's worth.

      --
      One swallow does not a fellatrix make
    21. Re:Actually it is that old. by CRCulver · · Score: 1, Offtopic

      ou already said that Dawkins is not a philosopher of religion, which indicates that you automatically exclude atheists from being philosophers of religion, which I'm prepared to agree with.

      No, atheists are not excluded from being philosophers of religion. There have been many notable atheist philosophers of religion. For every Swinburne there's a Mackie, and for every Plantinga there's a Flew (well, before his conversion, anyway). Just look in your university library for an introductory reader in the philosophy of religion--I'm especially fond of Readings in the Philosophy of Religion ed. Baruch Brody (Prentice Hall, 1996). you'll see that atheist lines of argumentation are just as represented as theist ones.

      Dawkins is not a philosopher of religion because he does not publish in journals dedicated to the subject, nor does he hold a university position as a lecturer or researcher in the philosopher of religion, nor do many actual philosophers of religion recognize Dawkins as one of their own.

    22. Re:Actually it is that old. by Mikkeles · · Score: 1

      'This idea, that logic in a sense precedes God, is controversial, and debate on this is one of the most lively issues in philosophy of religion at the moment.' [emphasis mine]

      And people talk about trekkies needing to get a life!

      --
      Great minds think alike; fools seldom differ.
    23. Re:Actually it is that old. by andphi · · Score: 1

      There's no such thing as religion? What an interesting assertion!

      Let me go check with some Buddhists on that. Well, maybe not the Buddhists, since they're probably trying to be as detached from what we would refer to as their 'religion' as what we would refer to as 'everything else'. How about some Muslims? Or Sikhs? Zoroastrians! Maybe the Zoroastrians will be able to tell me this 'religion' thing is non-existent.

      Sorry, they didn't seem to be willing to say 'there is no such thing as religion'. And I'm not even going to bother asking Protestants, Catholics, or Jews about it. And the Hindus are too busy not eating their cattle to talk to me about how their veneration of a million or more different gods is not, in fact, a religion.

      But seriously, if you wanted to be precise, you should have asked, 'what value does the knowledge of something specious have?' Religions clearly do exist. You may question their value, but the human tendency to be religious is incontrovertible.

      [noflame]Everything I said is to poke fun at the imprecision of the OP's argument, not to poke fun at the various faiths and religions I mentioned. No offense is meant to any adherent of any of these religions.[/noflame]

    24. Re:Actually it is that old. by totallyscrewed · · Score: 0, Troll

      Actually, the Zoroastrians don't exist; they were wiped out by the Muslims.

    25. Re:Actually it is that old. by BRUTICUS · · Score: 1

      Yeah you idiots everyone knows god just does this to test our faith... He's a bit of a trickster god! I bet he's a having a good laugh up there right now...

      "Look at those FOOLS HAHAHAHA!! They actually believe people were on Earth 40,000 years ago... What a bunch of maroons! HAHAHAHAHA! That was one of my easiest jokes and they all fell for it. Well, not as good as the dinosaurs but STILL GOOD! Hahahahaa!"

    26. Re:Actually it is that old. by andphi · · Score: 1

      From what I've heard, the religion is being carried on in relatively small enclaves in India, Pakistan, Iran, and elsewhere. Total world population is estimated be about 200,000 (as of 1996).

      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrian#Demograph ics/

    27. Re:Actually it is that old. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      While Freddy Mercury is dead, the Muslims didn't kill him, and I don't think he was the last Zoroastrian anyway.

    28. Re:Actually it is that old. by Bloke+down+the+pub · · Score: 1

      nor do many actual philosophers of religion recognize Dawkins as one of their own.
      They wouldn't, would they? Even those who search for the underlying truth care about job security.
      --
      It's true I tell you, feller at work's next door neighbour read it in the paper.
    29. Re:Actually it is that old. by v01d · · Score: 1

      Please get some training in the field before you try to dispute its work. K thx bye.

      You haven't, so why should anyone care what you say? You're just one of a billion christian tools. You might have an edge in arrogance, but that doesn't really buy much credibility.

    30. Re:Actually it is that old. by CRCulver · · Score: 0, Offtopic

      No, that's not it at all. If Dawkins fulfilled the requirements I mentioned above, publishing in the right journals, holding a proper university position, then of course no one would have a problem considering him a colleague.

    31. Re:Actually it is that old. by CRCulver · · Score: 0, Offtopic

      I did do work in the philosophy of religion as an undergraduate, and my favourite part of the field isn't specifically Christian at all. But still, my point above stands, it's not for anyone on Slashdot (unless they hold a Ph.D and a university position in the subject) to say anything negative about a field.

    32. Re:Actually it is that old. by Lord+Ender · · Score: 4, Insightful

      Richard Swinburne, the foremost living philosopher of religion
      No - the foremost living philosopher of religion is Richard Dawkins
      Actually, Daniel Dennett is probably the best mind in the field today.
      He proposes many scientific tests for analyzing the propagation, benefits, and costs of religious ideas. He thinks memetics and evolutionary psychology provide the best way of understanding the state of religions.

      He is also an atheist, and believes religion is in its death-throes in modern society.

      --
      A slashdotter who didn't build his own computer is like a Jedi who didn't build his own lightsaber.
    33. Re:Actually it is that old. by Das+Modell · · Score: 0

      Something caused the universe to come into existence. It may have been God. Seems logical enough for me. There's also the fact that humans seem to have a natural need to believe in something. Even those who aggressively deny God may believe in something completely irrational. The only difference is that many of those irrational things can be disproven (and they still believe in them), whereas God cannot.

    34. Re:Actually it is that old. by v01d · · Score: 3, Insightful
      But still, my point above stands, it's not for anyone on Slashdot (unless they hold a Ph.D and a university position in the subject) to say anything negative about a field.

      Your point is just an inversion of the burden of proof fallacy. If I have a phd in the field of "teapots orbitting the sun", every one is more than welcome to question the value of my field. If your point was valid, any quack could create all sorts of completely pointless fields of study and no one would be able to say they were pointless.


      The fact is if you are making a positive statement the burden of proof is on you. Almost by definition skepticism doesn't need proof, just reason.

    35. Re:Actually it is that old. by sgtrock · · Score: 1

      Wow. You really don't get it, do you? Re-read the GP, then re-read your post. Go ahead, take your time. I'll wait.

      ...

      ...

      ...

      Now, as a philosopher in training, can you tell us the extremely obvious error in preparing your response to his arguments that you are making?

      No? Let me help you out a bit.

      Note that I'm not making any judgments about how sound Dawkins' arguments might be. I'm not familiar with them, and don't have enough interest in reviewing them in detail. I'm just deliberately making fun of your complete inability to judge the soundness of his arguments on their own merits. Instead, you are dismissing them out of hand just because he doesn't happen to be a card carrying member of the Philosopher's Union.

      Silly boy. I think it's time you actually read a few source texts and really tried to understand them. You know, things like the Bible, the Koran, the Talmud, the Tao Te Ching, the Tripitaka, etc. Concentrate on those passages that talk about how to really see. Maybe you'll learn something.

      On second thought, don't bother. You're liable to learn enough to realize that you might risk your standing in the P.U. if you actually attempt to talk about what you've learned.

    36. Re:Actually it is that old. by Ooble · · Score: 1

      You're right about the --> operator. However, to put it in programming terms, the <--> operator takes two booleans, A and B, and returns (A == B). It's essentially the first-order logic equivalent of the == operator.

    37. Re:Actually it is that old. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      holding a proper university position,

      So only those with a university job are allowed to be a philosopher of religion?

    38. Re:Actually it is that old. by CRCulver · · Score: 0, Offtopic

      Now, as a philosopher in training...

      I really hope that when you finish your studies and begin your university career, you will not tolerate people without any appropriate qualifications in the field attempting to make their own arguments instead of merely accepting the arguments of qualified scholars. 'Cause let me tell you, most people I know in my own field are sick of such behavior. Do your lecturers know about this?

    39. Re:Actually it is that old. by MightyMartian · · Score: 1

      Richard Swinburne, the foremost living philosopher of religion, gives an interesting presentation of this problem for laymen in his book Is There a God? (Oxford University Press, 1996). His conclusion is that God is bound by logic. For example, he cannot cause something to exist and not exist at the same time. This idea, that logic in a sense precedes God, is controversial, and debate on this is one of the most lively issues in philosophy of religion at the moment.
      Nothing like seeing a bunch of people debating the attributes of a mythical bronze age creator deity. I think I'll start up a society that debates whether or not Thor can shoot lightning bolts out of his butt. It seems about as worthwhile a line of inquiry as whether or not God can make a kidney stone so big not even He could pass it.
      --
      The world's burning. Moped Jesus spotted on I50. Details at 11.
    40. Re:Actually it is that old. by althea19 · · Score: 1

      there is no logical reason for believing in a god or gods at all. Of course, I shouldn't have to point out that this statement lof yours is based on an unproven assumption that you've successfully digested all human knowledge past, present, and future. I'd say universal negatives are probably impossible to prove, but perhaps that doesn't trouble you too much.

      Logic not only precedes gods, it precludes them as well. If it precludes them how can it precede them? Why should we care about logic? Do you have an explanation as to why you place so much creedance in logic? Where did it come from? What makes it so?

      but to try to apply logic and reason to myths is just not valid. Why not? "just not" sounds like saying "it is evident" without providing any basis.
    41. Re:Actually it is that old. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      It's like saying "Can God make the set of all sets that are not members of themselves." (i.e. Russell's paradox) It's not a well-defined statement, so you can't draw conclusions from it.

    42. Re:Actually it is that old. by Retric · · Score: 2

      "There's also the fact that humans seem to have a natural need to believe in something. Even those who aggressively deny God may believe in something completely irrational."

      That does not support your argument "those ... deny God" believe in a lack of god by definition. Agnostics on the other hand neither believe or disbelieve the existence of "God" and therefore disprove your statement.

      Anyway, I like many people I feel the existence of God is as likely as the FSM (flying spaghetti monster) but neither believe nor disbelieve the existence of either.

      EX: It's possible for a 20 year old to randomly flip's a coin and get heads every time after he keep's it up for 6 months, he goes on the road becomes world famous, in time he believes that it's a sign from god. So he becomes a preacher etc. Then in on his 90th birthday he flips a coin and get's tails and becomes so distraught he dies of a heart attack. However, nothing I said implies his story could not have been random chance.

      PS: The idea that the existence or non existence of anything can be proven is false.

    43. Re:Actually it is that old. by inviolet · · Score: 2

      Something caused the universe to come into existence.

      Why does existence need a cause? Why can't it simply be eternal?

      It may have been God. Seems logical enough for me.

      Ah, so reality is finite and bounded, but a personality is unlimited? Doesn't that strike you as backwards?

      There's also the fact that humans seem to have a natural need to believe in something. Even those who aggressively deny God may believe in something completely irrational.

      True enough. Now tell us how you got from that fact of human psychology to a cosmological puppeteer.

      The only difference is that many of those irrational things can be disproven (and they still believe in them), whereas God cannot.

      God doesn't need disproving, He needs proving.

      An inability to prove a thing's existence, is prima facie evidence that the thing has no effects on anyone.

      --
      FATMOUSE + YOU = FATMOUSE
    44. Re:Actually it is that old. by sgtrock · · Score: 1

      lol. Boy, are you off base. I'm an IT geek with nearly 30 years experience in the field. Somehow I've managed to rise to the top of my profession on the technical track without ever getting around to completing a 4 year degree. My current group is Enterprise Architecture. We jokingly refer to ourselves as the wizards in the ivory tower, dreaming with our head in the clouds.

      My only post high school certificates are an assortment of tech related schools from the U.S. Navy and an A.A. in business management. My colleagues range from people who came up through the ranks with no more than a high school education to Ph.D.s in various areas of IT.

      Do you know what I've learned over the years? College degrees are nice. They are really handy for a couple of reasons. From my point of view, their primary usefulness is they help many people learn how to think (when they are done well).

      From my bosses' point of view, a college degree tells them someone has the discipline to commit to a long term course of action and finish it. That's worth something on the open market.

      Do I wish I'd finished my degree? Sometimes. I'm not too worried about it, though. One of my sisters got her M.A. when she was about 35. Another just finished her B.A. at the ripe old age of 40 and is currently working on her M.A. My grandmother got her B.A. when she was over 50. I figure I've got plenty of time if I ever choose to go after it. Its lack certainly hasn't held me back all that much.

      What really matters in the end is whether or not someone can put together a sound vision and successfully defend it. Not whether or not they hold some particular piece of paper.

      BTW, tell me. What school of divinity did Jesus graduate from again? How about Mohammed? Siddhartha Gautama?

    45. Re:Actually it is that old. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Sadly, he's a eugenicist to boot. Link It's amazing that he can go on about how unscientific and evil religion is, yet he supports something far worse.

    46. Re:Actually it is that old. by Camel+Pilot · · Score: 1
      How can this be insightful? You have contributed no substance to the discussion or provided a alternate view.

      It has nothing to do with religion or anything else.

      It has everything to do with religion.

      Dawkin's is passionate about the subject and he has thrust the question into the public forum and forced people, both public and private, to question their unfounded beliefs - this does not make it flamebait.

      On the other hand your post is nothing more than a troll. Unless you have points, evidence, quotes or support for your claim you are merely engaging in defamation.
    47. Re:Actually it is that old. by truckaxle · · Score: 1

      Dawkins is an arrogant media-hungry loser of science.

      Was Thomas Huxley an arrogant media-hunger loser of science?

      In the fight against the fundamentalists (be they Christian, Mulsim, Hindu, etc) I prefer to have a Churchill instead of Chamberlain in the fray.

      The subject of the existence and nature of God is perhaps the most important question of all time.
      Dawkins forcefully and articulately advocates stripping away the historical baggage that clouds many people's worldview and religious positions.

      It is high time to reconsider: the implicit goodness of unfounded faith, the archaic views of bronze-age gods, failure of religions to enlighten, the morality of brainwashing children with religious views. Sam Harris has put it concerning the scientific worldview "there is new wine (slowly) being poured. Why not catch it with a clean glass?"

      Oh and BTW, I am sure Dawkin's contribution to science are pale and insignificant to your own eh? and your arguments are so convincing.
    48. Re:Actually it is that old. by plunge · · Score: 1

      The idea that Dawkins is a philosopher of religion is a pretty silly one (and one I doubt Dawkins himself would agree with), but it's worth noting that it's pretty dishonest to paint Flew as having "gone in the opposite direction." Flew is now extremely old. He at one point thought that he heard a good argument for deism, but later himself stated that he may have gotten confused and his mental acuity is not what it used to me. He never became religious or endorsed religious ideas. Dawkins has many times stated that he has little or no quarrel with diesm, simply theism, and so on.

    49. Re:Actually it is that old. by plunge · · Score: 1

      Dawkins is not a eugenicist, as even reading that quote shows. Wes Smith is however, a liar and a purveyor of nonsense.

    50. Re:Actually it is that old. by plunge · · Score: 1

      For what it's worth, I've never been convinced that philosophy in the sense of producing philosophical arguments is a proper academic field. Certainly it requires academic expertise to say, have read and understood and studied the works of philosophers. But that's not the same thing as claiming that there is a special expertise in philosophizing. There might be a talent for it, but I've never seen that having a degree in philosophy makes ones arguments sounder or more sensible. In many cases, it seems to give an excuse to people to be pointlessly verbose and obscure about ideas that are often either ridiculous or trivial, depending on how you interpret the sloppy jargon.

    51. Re:Actually it is that old. by Das+Modell · · Score: 1

      That does not support your argument "those ... deny God" believe in a lack of god by definition. Agnostics on the other hand neither believe or disbelieve the existence of "God" and therefore disprove your statement.

      I wasn't talking about agnostics, but even agnostics can believe in something. It just doesn't have to be a formal religion.
    52. Re:Actually it is that old. by Das+Modell · · Score: 1

      Why does existence need a cause? Why can't it simply be eternal?

      It can, but I don't see why it would.

      Ah, so reality is finite and bounded, but a personality is unlimited? Doesn't that strike you as backwards?

      No. What's backwards about it?

      True enough. Now tell us how you got from that fact of human psychology to a cosmological puppeteer.

      You mean it shouldn't lead to religion? Why not?
    53. Re:Actually it is that old. by mapkinase · · Score: 1

      Who is Thomas Huxley? Nobody cares what you prefer. The subject of the existence and nature of God IS NOT the most important question of all time. It is most important ANSWER but not the most important QUESTION. Do not worry, this happens.

      "Dawkins forcefully and articulately" makes fool of himself by arrogant usage of pseudo-scienctific arguments on the matter that is clearly beyond science. Philosophy is not science, mathematics is not science.

      --
      I do not believe in karma. "Funny"=-6. Do good and forbid evil. Yours, Oft-Offtopic Flamebaiting Troll.
    54. Re:Actually it is that old. by mazarin5 · · Score: 1
      PS: The idea that the existence or non existence of anything can be proven is false.

      Prove it. :)

      --
      Fnord.
    55. Re:Actually it is that old. by aproposofwhat · · Score: 1
      OK - provide me with a rational argument that a belief in god or gods is either useful or otherwise illuminates our understanding in ways that the scientific enterprise can not.

      I place credence (not cree-dance, which sounds like something a particular group of Native Americans might have done of an evening) in logic because logic, and the mathematics that stem from logic, provide a means to model and explain experience that is consistent, extensible and simple to understand. Contrast this with religiosity, where 'truths' are revealed to the elect, and interpreted for the ordinary mortals by a priestly elite, who more often than not enrich themselves on the back of the ignorance, superstition and fear of others, and I think you might see how a belief in the utility of logic might be a reasonable basis for life.

      As for precedence and preclusion, I admit that that was more of a rhetorical flourish than anything else, but it was in response to an insufferably arrogant post by some wet-behind-the-ears philosophy undergraduate, and was an attempt to highlight the point that I was trying to make by quoting Wittgenstein - that transcendent concepts, by their very nature, are not amenable to logical analysis, and have no place in philosophical discussion (a bit like a Godwin's law for adults).

      Similarly, that was the point I was trying to highlight in saying 'to try to apply logic and reason to myths is just mot valid'.

      Nice post, btw - much better than being told to learn about stuff that I learnt more than 20 years ago by some kid who's only just read it for an assignment, and still believes that giving respect to theists just because it's rude not to is somehow sensible.

      --
      One swallow does not a fellatrix make
    56. Re:Actually it is that old. by althea19 · · Score: 1

      not cree-dance, which sounds like something a particular group of Native Americans might have done of an evening

      On second thought, "creedance" seems to be a mispelling of "creedence" as in "creedence clearwater revival" :)

      OK - provide me with a rational argument that a belief in god or gods is either useful or otherwise illuminates our understanding in ways that the scientific enterprise can not.

      First off, to some degree I feel whether belief in a deity is useful or illuminating is irrelevant. If God exists and that fact has no value whatsoever, I would wish to be a theist. However, if God does not exist but believing He does has great value, I would rather be an atheist. If we are to start from a consistent materialistic basis, we find no way to coherently connect the particulars and the universals (or as others have put it the "one" and the "many"). Many have tried, but it seems that they have all failed so far. Of course, a soley humanistic scientific enterprise that arrives at many scientific advances will have immediate benefits. Many times it is due to people imagining that they have a sufficient universal. However, without some meaningful universal to tie in the various aspects of human discovery, such discoveries eventually fall into the oblivion of insignificance. That is not to say that a individual or a society can't last for a LONG time without an adequete universal. The particulars of science, ethics, morality, love, etc. can be had in ANY worldview system, with or without God. But I believe that without belief in God, these particulars are anomalies. In purely materialistic world, it isn't rational to suppose that science, ethics, morality, love, etc., are anything more than blips on the radar screen, anomalies in an otherwise chaotic existence, thus having no basis in anything universal or transcedental. Why should we care about them then? It is rational to conclude that without God (however arcane, useful, or true that idea may be) or any other transcendent being, the atheist is left with a tenuous grip on the very advances that is being reaped from science. Of course this point can not be fully expanded here without writing an entire book :) Also, as a side note, it appears that the biggest modern dilemma is not how to make more advances in the scientific enterprise, but rather how to integrate them to our life, how to to understand ethics in relation to them, how to understand their overarching significance, etc. This, I believe, sheer "scientific enterprise" can not answer.

      logic, and the mathematics that stem from logic, provide a means to model and explain experience that is consistent, extensible and simple to understand. Contrast this with religiosity, where 'truths' are revealed to the elect, and interpreted for the ordinary mortals by a priestly elite, who more often than not enrich themselves on the back of the ignorance, superstition and fear of others, and I think you might see how a belief in the utility of logic might be a reasonable basis for life.

      Nearly everyone would agree that the laws of logic are universal, because if they weren't they would obviously have very limited usefulness. Based on what you've said here and your reasonableness in argument, I'm sure you uphold the universality of the laws of logic, and I'd agree with you on that. With the existence of a God back to whose activity the regularity of logic can be traced, I'd suppose that operating under my starting-point the basis for the universality of logic is evident. However, it appears to me that if we are to assume the non-existence of God and purely materialistic assumptions, there is a shakey basis for the universality of the laws of logic. I am NOT saying that it would mean people would be illogical and neither do I mean that in such a case people would reject the universality of the laws of logic. I'm just saying that to do so, they would need to be somewhat inconsistent. Of course, some hypoth

    57. Re:Actually it is that old. by Bastard+of+Subhumani · · Score: 1

      BTW, tell me. What school of divinity did Jesus graduate from again? How about Mohammed? Siddhartha Gautama?
      I'm sure they'd be perfect candidates for those that offer credit for work history & life experience. I'll forward some emails if you (or they) ask.
      --
      Only three things are certain; death, taxes, and apocryphal quotations - Ben Franklin.
    58. Re:Actually it is that old. by Hognoxious · · Score: 1
      --
      Confucius say, "Find worm in apple - bad. Find half a worm - worse."
    59. Re:Actually it is that old. by Camel+Pilot · · Score: 1

      Who is Thomas Huxley?


      Sigh.... Education is not what it use to be....

    60. Re:Actually it is that old. by mapkinase · · Score: 1

      Whooosh! That is my answer flying way over your head.

      --
      I do not believe in karma. "Funny"=-6. Do good and forbid evil. Yours, Oft-Offtopic Flamebaiting Troll.
    61. Re:Actually it is that old. by sgtrock · · Score: 1

      Oh, the reference was deliberate. I'm not at all surprised that Culver didn't pick up on the cluebat I had aimed at his head. :D

    62. Re:Actually it is that old. by ultranova · · Score: 1

      If I have a phd in the field of "teapots orbitting the sun", every one is more than welcome to question the value of my field. If your point was valid, any quack could create all sorts of completely pointless fields of study and no one would be able to say they were pointless.

      If millions of people began defining themselves in terms of whether they believe in the existence of these teapots or not (pots and apots ?-), found all kind of organizations around the subject (Catholic Tea House vs. Freebrewers ?-), wrote books like "The Teapot Delusion", and engaged in fierce debates about the subject in message boards like Slashdot, I'd say that the subject would indeed be important enough to justify a studying the possible existence and properties of these hypothetical orbital teapots.

      Sure, it would seem pointless to anyone not caring about teapots; but then again, attempts to develop heart transplants would seem pointless to anyone not caring about staying alive. Importance of things is purely up to personal priorities, and for whatever reason a large amount of people seem to consider the existence/nonexistence and nature of God to be important to them, which makes the field valuable to them. You are, of course, free to disagree about that value; but please understand that that is simply your opinion and not any more or less valid than any other.

      --

      Forget magic. Any technology distinguishable from divine power is insufficiently advanced.

  8. Age? by sarahbau · · Score: 0, Offtopic

    Would it have been so hard to mention the age in the summary? You made me RTFA! :(

  9. Could be fake by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

    China is known for its black market on falsified archaeological evidence... so as intriguing as this sounds, it has a very high likelihood of being a forgery.

    1. Re:Could be fake by djupedal · · Score: 3, Informative

      "has a very high likelihood of being a forgery"

      Don't be an idiot - that would mean being found for sale on a dirty blanket laid out on a sidewalk outside the Lohou train station in Shenzhen. The Tianyuan Cave is a carefully protected area, listed on UNESCO's World Heritage List, and monitored specifically to prohibit such funny business.

    2. Re:Could be fake by Red+Flayer · · Score: 1

      The Tianyuan Cave is a carefully protected area, listed on UNESCO's World Heritage List, and monitored specifically to prohibit such funny business
      Your tinfoil-hat-fu is weak. Who monitors it, and what would they stand to gain by this find occurring there?

      What if nothing was found at UNESCO sites? UNESCO would lose relevancy, of course. It's rather obvious that UNESCO, the Chinese government, and academics have conspired to pull one over on us, and that these bone fragments are actually the remnants of last Friday's goat barbecue.
      --
      "Trolls they were, but filled with the evil will of their master: a fell race..." -- J.R.R. Tolkien on Olog-hai
    3. Re:Could be fake by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      goat.se has been barbecued?

  10. Philosophers have value? by guidryp · · Score: 2, Interesting

    "Theist philosophers of religion propose arguments, and their non-theist colleagues, though they critically examine them, nonetheless believe that the whole enterprise has value."

    First you have to convince someone that modern academic philosophers have value, for this statement to matter.

    Religion is interesting in the abstract, but theists tend to believe because that is what their parents believed and they simply indoctrinated the children. If not fairly heavily indoctrinated, most people would not be that religious.

    1. Re:Philosophers have value? by c_forq · · Score: 3, Interesting

      If not fairly heavily indoctrinated, most people would not be that religious.

      I hear this argument a lot, but I have never seen anyone back it up with evidence. I know it is anecdotal so close to meaningless, but my reason to doubt is the largest church in my hometown has a congregation of over 1,600 people, and a vast majority of them were not raised in Christian homes. Now the catholic church and school, in which children are heavily indoctrinated and I don't think a single member wasn't raised in a catholic home, has seen steady and fairly rapid decline.

      --
      Computers allow humans to make mistakes at the fastest speeds known, with the possible exception of tequila and handguns
    2. Re:Philosophers have value? by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Are you seriously arguing that indoctrination doesn't implicate religious belief? I've met a lot of people in my life, and I know of *one* who became a christian but had atheist parents. I know of many who went the opposite route, and everyone else I know pretty much followed whatever their parents did.

      Children in predominantly christian countries are predominantly christian. Likewise for muslims, hindus, etc... Hence, indoctrination works, otherwise there would be as many muslims in the US as there are on average world-wide.

  11. I can clap with one hand by spineboy · · Score: 1

    I basically keep my wrist still and throw/slap my finger forward - it make a nice clapping sound. It always screw up people who have poised that question in front of me.

    --
    ..........FULL STOP.
  12. And there's been a stamp on the bone fragments by woodengod · · Score: 0

    "Made in China"

  13. Re:Surname by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

    Thats wasis!

  14. Letter to the Editor/Editorial Grievance by webdoodle · · Score: 0

    If someone else submitted this same article, wouldn't it show up in the firehose?

    This last week I submitted 15 articles to slashdot. 2 were rejected right away, and several sat pending. One that was voted quite well in the firehose was later rejected. One article, not including this one, was hijacked and redirect to another site.

    I fully expect that most of the articles I submit will be rejected. My tastes are not universal, nor are all the press releases I gather and articles I write the quality that a good editor would except. I'm still learning how this process works, and expect a few bruises and blackeyes.

    With that said, I don't see why I've been maliciously blacklisted by the editors of this site. I've seen 3 articles on this site this week from other web sites that collect and publish news in exactly the same way that I do. They haven't been blacklisted, why am I?

    The Napoleonic method by which I was browbeat in the superbug article was uncalled for. I made a mistake, and immediate fixed it when it was brought to my attention. However, since then, my articles have been rejected or redirected to other sites.

    I spend a significant amount of time scouring the internet for press releases and research papers on the topics I'm interested in. The ones I think are applicable to slashdot, and haven't been submit by others, I submit for review. I then watch those submissions in the firehose, to see which are interesting to slashdot users. People are obviously interested in the topics I'm submitting, why penalize me for doing you a favor?

    I just discovered slashdot a few weeks ago. I've been suffering through the idiots at Digg ever since people learned how to game their system. At first slashdot was a bit daunting, because the submission system is quite different than any other user generated news sites I've seen. After my initial learning curve though, I realized the true power of this system.

    Earlier this week I told a friend how much better I liked the slashdot editorial system. I told him how the system allowed people to vote on articles, but that editors still had the final say. I said "you don't get all the toilet humor articles on the home page about the scientific methods of wiping your butt." For me slashdot was the ideal news aggregator.

    Now that I'm on the pointy end of the editorial process though, I'm starting to see problems. First off, if an editor has the time to go out and find a similar article to the one I posted, then they have enough time to tell me why they rejected mine to begin with. If you are just going to take the research efforts I've put in and redirect them at your whim, what incentive do you intend to offer so that I'll continue to submit high quality news?

    I apologize for posting this letter to this article. I was unable to find a "Letters to the Editor(s)" section. If one exists, please let me know, and I will continue this dialogue their.

    1. Re:Letter to the Editor/Editorial Grievance by darthnoodles · · Score: 1

      For me slashdot was the ideal news aggregator.

      You're new here aren't you?
    2. Re:Letter to the Editor/Editorial Grievance by webdoodle · · Score: 0

      In case you didn't read my post, I said I've only been here for 3 weeks. Is there some hidden meaning in your post? Please elaborate.

    3. Re:Letter to the Editor/Editorial Grievance by darthnoodles · · Score: 1

      In case you didn't read my post, I said I've only been here for 3 weeks.
      Don't worry, I read it.

      Is there some hidden meaning in your post?
      No.

      Please elaborate.
      Trust me, it's a funny joke, an old joke, but I still think it's quite funny in this case.
    4. Re:Letter to the Editor/Editorial Grievance by jericho4.0 · · Score: 1
      This might not be the site you think it is. It's far older than 'Web 2.0', and cares little about generating hits for your website.

      In Korea, only old people use Web 2.0.

      --
      "A language that doesn't affect the way you think about programming, is not worth knowing" - Alan Perlis
    5. Re:Letter to the Editor/Editorial Grievance by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

      Holycrap!! Genuine Noob!!

  15. Re:Statistics Canada. by guidryp · · Score: 5, Interesting

    Just recently I ran across this at statscan: Page 7-9 of pdf. There is an interesting table on "Religiosity", part of it compared religiosity to parental religion Look at the low religiosity category. If both parent have the same religion (more consistent message) only 32% have low religiosity, if both parents just have different religions (less consistent message) low religiosity jumps to %50. If neither parent is religious, it jumps to %85. This has always made sense, but this is pretty clear statistical evidence that it is more a learned trait.

    http://www.statcan.ca/cgi-bin/downpub/listpub.cgi? catno=11-008-XIE2006001

    Religion of parents (vs outcome Lo Med Hi religiosity )
    Both parents same religion 32 34 33
    Parents from different religions 50 28 22
    Neither parent religious 85 6 10

    I like to think I was just born very skeptical and would have been a non believer no matter what circumstance I was born into, but it may just be that neither of my parents was religious and I was left to form my own ideas without being indoctrinated. Naturally many people will buck the trend but I think the correlation is clear.

    Religion is just the brains legacy OS many people got stuck with.

  16. US News article by timjdot · · Score: 1

    I read a recent article - in US News & World Report I think - where they mention "modern" traits appearing for hundreds of thousands of years. Their stated theory was the traits failed. It doesn't take much of a thinker to realize the extent forms are not the result of a linear, constantly improving evolution function; so, to make claims of evolution based on "advantage" and to continue to hold those despite such clear "advantages" occurring much older than what is claimed as "modern" is simply bad science. It is great to research and to have theories but the evidence does not seem to point to these same conclusions. FWIW, I don't think the claim the Mongolians developed in or around China holds any validity given the stated need for separation. A more probable guess is they developed in the Americas and then emigrated.
        Few people seem to realize how fast time will ravage a civilization. A city built in a desert may have remains after 4000 years but a city built in a fertile valley will probably be washed away after eons of floods. Not to mention cities built on hills which will simply crumble down after thousands of years. Even highways paved in the 1950's can barely be located today if they have been abandoned. Trees are very powerful at breaking up concrete and other human building materials.

    --
    Expect Freedom.
  17. Oldest modern human eh? by f5hacka · · Score: 1

    Wouldn't the oldest modern human be the oldest person currently alive? "Holy crap guys! Check out that old guy! I'm totally slashdotting this."

    --
    Hi
  18. Meow by benhocking · · Score: 1

    For example, he cannot cause something to exist and not exist at the same time.
    Evidently, He is not aware of Schrödinger's cat.
    --
    Ben Hocking
    Need a professional organizer?
    1. Re:Meow by Bastard+of+Subhumani · · Score: 2, Funny

      Perhaps he's simultaneously aware and not aware of it?

      --
      Only three things are certain; death, taxes, and apocryphal quotations - Ben Franklin.
    2. Re:Meow by CRCulver · · Score: 0, Offtopic

      That only asserts that a human observer cannot know one way or the other, it says nothing about the abilities of an omniscient God.

  19. Really? by Moraelin · · Score: 1
    Disclaimer: I'm not particularly religious (in fact, like the joke goes, more like apathic agnostic: I don't know if there's a god, and don't really give a damn), so probably not really qualified to play the devil's advocate there. Still, it seems to me like you're taking some axioms for granted which are actually very debatable.

    If God creates such things, he might be omnipotent but very stupid.

    Or maybe he just doesn't think the way you do?

    Imagine you're God.

    Yes, please do think you're _God_. Not a king, not an emperor, but something truly omnipotent, at least in regards to the universe you created.

    Ok, probably it's hard to imagine something like that, so let's simplify it some more. Think you're a hacker running such a universe as a simulation on your computer. You're as close to omnipotent as it gets in that simulated world you created. You can raise a mountain or boil the seas with just a click-and-drag of the mouse. Rearrange the continents if you want to. Make the planet spin backwards. Plunge it into the sun, if you want to. Raise the ocean level until only a mountain top sticks out, like in the biblical legend. Etc.

    Or you can end the whole simulation with an ALT-F4 if you so wish, truly turning a whole universe into _nothing_. Not even ruins or asteroid debris or radioactive fallout, but truly into _nothing_. As if it never even existed. How's that for truly godly power, by the standards of those simulated people?

    Now also realize the gap between you and them. You're God, they're bunch of simulated people and animals in the virtual world of your creation. They're not your peers, they're a bunch of created NPCs, and they're allowed to exist only because it keeps you interested or entertained. Maybe you're curious what will happen in the long term with that simulation, or maybe you're just bored, or maybe you just had an unused old computer and no better idea what to leave running on it.

    And of course, you want people to believe in you 'cause ... well, you're God, that's your job.

    Really? Why? Think at the above scenario again. What difference would it make to you whether those created people believe in you or not? Why would it matter at all?

    For more power? You already have _absolute_ power over that virtual world. There's no way to go upwards from there. Whether those people believe in you or not, you still can do the same things to their world. You can still keep it running or reformat the drive, whether they're all true believers or all heretics or somewhere in between.

    For popularity? Among whom? They're not your peers, they're just some NPCs you created. Who cares if you're popular among them?

    Because "it's your job"... heh... _JOB_? Really? You're _God_ there. You don't have any job or duty towards those NPCs. They're in no position to actually expect you to do a _job_. How would they pay you for a "job" anyway? If you do anything for them, it's at most a _favour_, not some "job". Or you might as well ignore them and leave the simulation running on a server in the basement until something interesting happens. (E.g., they nuke themselves.)

    No, seriously, think playing SimCity. You might feel benevolent towards those little simulated people, you might even want to make their lives easy, but... "job"? I don't think anyone would consider it a job or duty.

    Why would I create stuff to make people doubt my existance?

    Why wouldn't you? I can think of plenty of reasons why I would do just that if I was running that simulation.

    E.g., because it's a damn boring simulation if they all are stuck at the emotional level of children obeying the will of an omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent parent. Because likely that's what it would degenerate into, if I made myself an active and undeniable God in that simulated world. Think 1984 on steroids: they _know_ Big Brother

    --
    A polar bear is a cartesian bear after a coordinate transform.
    1. Re:Really? by LouisZepher · · Score: 1

      "What difference would it make to you whether those created people believe in you or not?"

      You then liken the scenario to a SimCity. Please correct me if I'm wrong, but Black&White would be a better comparison. In B&W (or the one I'm thinking of, if I have the title wrong) your status in the game is dependent on what the people in the simulation think of you. Perhaps this video game-playing god needs the Faith Points to level up so he has access to better stuff. Perhaps the people in the simulation need to be leveled-up in order to beat the player's friend's Peoplemon. You started out saying that a god doesn't think the same way we do. That would also mean what's logical for us isn't the same as what would be logical for such a being. However, after spending countless hours/days building your SimCity model, wouldn't you be a tad upset if the people in your game suddenly said: "Fuck this, I wanna run through the streets going 'wokka-wokka-wokka'..."

  20. Not by most interpretations by benhocking · · Score: 1

    Most QM interpretations hold that quantum superposition is not just a question of knowledge. Bell's Inequality specifically addresses that supposition.

    Granted, this does not prove/disprove an omniscient God. Personally, I'm an agnostic with very strong atheistic tendencies. I'm just addressing the original comment about the possibility of violating certain logics.

    --
    Ben Hocking
    Need a professional organizer?
  21. *Phew* by r00tman · · Score: 1

    I almost panicked when I read the title as "China's Earliest Modern Human Food", by accident.

    Bad eyes and hi-res monitors don't mix.

  22. Oh, no! Trees! by HiggsBison · · Score: 1

    Trees are very powerful at breaking up concrete and other human building materials.

    They've even been known to kill a congressman or two.

    --
    My other car is a 1984 Nark Avenger.
  23. Very insightful that by Moraelin · · Score: 1

    You then liken the scenario to a SimCity. Please correct me if I'm wrong, but Black&White would be a better comparison. In B&W (or the one I'm thinking of, if I have the title wrong) your status in the game is dependent on what the people in the simulation think of you. Perhaps this video game-playing god needs the Faith Points to level up so he has access to better stuff. Perhaps the people in the simulation need to be leveled-up in order to beat the player's friend's Peoplemon.


    The black and white idea is pretty new kind of a, "yeah, well, god needs us too" reaction. It's certainly not how any civilization I know of imagined their gods. And it isn't quite the way an omniscient and omnipotent god would work. Omnipotent != limited by faith points ;)

    But in the end, all I wrote was just one example of one possible kind of deity would not give a darn if anyone worships Him/Her or not, and would have nothing to lose by misleading His/Her creations. Sort of a counter-example to the idea that a god _must_ want worshippers, or that it's his job. Well, that's one kind of god who wouldn't.

    But, yeah, it's not the only kind of God that can be imagined, that much is obvious. For all I (don't) know, it could just as well be the B&W kind, or something completely different, or nothing at all. I don't pretend to know what's up there.

    For the purpose of that discussion, though, and of questioning the assumption that god _must_ need worshippers, it's the kind of example that serves my point. Hence using that one instead of the B&W one.

    You started out saying that a god doesn't think the same way we do. That would also mean what's logical for us isn't the same as what would be logical for such a being.


    Very much so. We don't even know what's up there, much less what their motives or logic would be. Even if their logic as such was the same as ours, logic in the end is a tool towards an end. It's used for example in figuring out a way to a goal, with the available tools/facts/whatever, and within some given constraints. E.g., I want warmth, I use logic to find a solution to that, like turning up the temperature on the heater's thermostat. So as long as we don't know what a deity's goals for that simulation are (worshippers? a power trip? an interesting empire building game because he's bored? something else?) we can't really talk about what would be logical for that deity to do.

    However, after spending countless hours/days building your SimCity model, wouldn't you be a tad upset if the people in your game suddenly said: "Fuck this, I wanna run through the streets going 'wokka-wokka-wokka'..."


    Personally I'd probably be a little amused. And, if I'm the one who wrote that simulation, it's just a signal that I need to debug it some more. But what would someone else do, much less a deity, yeah, I can't possibly know.
    --
    A polar bear is a cartesian bear after a coordinate transform.
    1. Re:Very insightful that by Opportunist · · Score: 1

      A God, by its very definition, needs worshippers. It's a bit of a philosophical question, but does a God even exist if nobody believes in him? Does he have any influence in a world that doesn't believe in him?

      Whether it's "mana points" or whatever, pretty much every religion has some kind of exclusivity demand in its makeup, that a god (or the pantheon) demands from you that you believe in him, her or them, and not in any conflicting religions.

      If you assume religion to be man made, this makes sense, because whoever created the religion wanted to hold power over you. That's a given and makes sense. But let's assume for a moment that Gods exist. Why would they demand such exclusivity if they weren't dependent, in whatever way, on their subjects?

      --
      We used to have a Bill of Rights. Now, with the rights gone, all we have left is the bill.
  24. Muslims in the US ???? by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

    You must be kidding, with all the propaganda waged against muslims, and more generally, !WASPs in the last centuries (KKK, GW Bush, and the NRA are from USA, no ?), why would it be so surprising there is scarcely any other religion in US, except christianity ?

    And, btw, US's motto is 'In God we thrust', or something like that ... no mention of Allah, Buddah, Jehovah, or any other one, just plain god with a capital G .. am I mistaken or is that a Registered TradeMark of christianity ??? ...

    Aside from that, I believe that not many religion can freely (that is, without some form of coercion, or social pressure behaviour) grab some other believers (for jews, your mother would have to have been converted), except for the more philosphically-inclined of them, such as Taoism, or Buddhism.

    -- foreach(($deity,$hell) in $Religions){ self.goto($hell) unless self.believe($deity) }

  25. Re:Statistics Canada. by LordEd · · Score: 1

    I did a study checking the mortality rate of parents vs the mortality rate of their kids. I found that in all cases that one or more of the parents died, their offspring also eventually died. It has led me to believe that death is indeed a hereditary trait.

  26. Again: REALLY? by Moraelin · · Score: 1

    Again, REALLY? I don't know where you even found that definition.

    That's certainly not the definition they use in the Bible, for example. I don't recall them saying anywhere that God would stop existing if you stop believing. In fact, au contraire, God is perfectly able to be an ominpotent god:

    - without _any_ worshippers during Genesis, before making Adam. And even afterwards, he doesn't seem to have any problem because he had only 2, and even those didn't seem to have _that_ much faith. It sure didn't stop them from going and listening to the snake instead.

    - during the flood, when again the world population was reduced to almost nothing

    - IIRC during the Apocalypse, when most of the people will follow the antichrist not God, but God is supposed to have no problem winning that fight anyway

    Neither did any other religion I can think of. E.g., yeah, the Norse believed that Odin will die, but not for lack of worshippers, but in battle during Ragnarok.

    E.g., for a lot of other religions such an idea doesn't even make any _sense_. Most early religions didn't even have anthropomorphic gods. For the early Romans, for example, before they got taken over by the Greek gods, Vesta wasn't an anthropomorphic goddes of fire, she actually was _the_ fire. You know, not human shaped, but flame shaped. The element itself. Others worshipped the sun, the desert, whatever. It doesn't even make any sense to believe that those would stop existing if you stop worshipping them.

    The very recent idea that maybe God needs your faith points makes for some good novels, but that's not the God described in the bible or anywhere else.

    More importantly: that's not the God that a real christian believes in. So if you're going to argue "your God is stupid" with creationists, then please argue about the God they actually believe in, not about some completely different idea of God. Basing your "what would make sense for God to do" on some 20'th century novels kind of god instead of the bible God, is as silly as basing it on what would make sense for Zeus or Odin. Well, they don't believe in that one, so who cares if it wouldn't make sense for that one?

    --
    A polar bear is a cartesian bear after a coordinate transform.
  27. Re:Statistics Canada. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

    What is this kind of rebuttal called? Surely there's a name for submitting a rebuttal which is an obvious but unrelated inference that makes a statement having parallel structure but no parallel meaning to the statement being contested.

  28. Apologies to Smith and Jones by Hognoxious · · Score: 1

    First guy: So, what do you do then?
    Second guy: I'm a philosopher. Of religion.

    G1: Oooh. How did you get to be one of them, then?
    G2: Well, I did a degree in philosophy then a masters in religious philosophy on the way to a PhD. I had to read all these books and stuff.

    G1: So, er, who taught you on these courses?
    G2: Why, professors of philosophy mainly. My supervisor for my PhD was a specialist in the philosophy of religion.

    G1: And how did they get to to be philosophers of religion then?
    G2: Dammit, they studied philosophy of religion at university of course!

    --
    Confucius say, "Find worm in apple - bad. Find half a worm - worse."
  29. The article is crap by jbo5112 · · Score: 1

    It's based on radio-carbon dating, when the amount of C-14 is known to not be constant. They have charts that are supposed to correct this but they're based on things like a tree's annual rings (which aren't always annual) and ice core samples (where the markings dated WWII planes at thousands of years old). I can't comment on the other methods used (deep ocean sediment cores, lake sediment varves, coral samples, and speleothems (cave deposits)), since no one has ever explained how they work, but I can't imagine them being any better since they use two methods known to be inaccurate.

  30. More bones by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

    Researchers found 34 bone fragments belonging to a single individual... I got more bones than that guy. If you're trying to impress me you have failed.
  31. Re:Statistics Canada. by Anonymous Coward · · Score: 0

    The technical term is "Bullshit".